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Interior of the Earth

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Direct Sources: Mining and deep drilling projects have provided large volume of information through the analysis of materials collected at different depths. Also when  the molten material (magma) is thrown onto the surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption it becomes available for laboratory analysis. •Indirect Sources  Analysis of properties of matter indirectly provides information about the interior. Through the  mining activity, it  is  known that  temperature and  pressure increase  with the  increasing distance from the surface towards the interior in deeper depths. •Also, the density of the material  also  increases  with depth. Knowing the total  thickness  of the earth, scientists have estimated  the values of temperature, pressure and the density of materials  at different depths. Another source of information are the meteors that at times reach the earth. •The material and the structure observed in the meteors are similar  to that of the earth. They are solid bodies dev
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TAX BUOYANCY AND TAX DEVALUATION

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What is the issue? Poor responsiveness of tax collection to economic growth poses new challenges for norms on sharing taxes with the states. In this regard, here is a look at tax buoyancy trend and its impact on tax devolution. What is tax buoyancy? Tax buoyancy is one of the key indicators to assess the efficiency of a government’s tax system. Generally, as the economy achieves faster growth, the tax revenue of the government also goes up. Tax buoyancy explains this relationship between the changes in government’s tax revenue growth and the changes in GDP. In other words, it measures the responsiveness of tax mobilisation to economic growth. What are the determining factors? Tax buoyancy depends largely on - the size of the tax base the friendliness of the tax administration the reasonableness and simplicity of the tax rates Look at just one year’s tax buoyancy to arrive at any conclusion on the tax system’s efficiency would be unfair. There are many other
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RURAL POVERTY

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What is the issue? There are discussions in the country about India’s rural poverty considering the period of last 5 years. Most of these discussions fail to factor in multi-dimensional changes. Why rural poverty in India is a subject of discussion recently? Low increase in prices of agricultural commodities and the slower increase in rural agricultural wages have been seen by some as signs of a crisis for the rural poor. Many acknowledge the role of pro-poor public welfare programmes over the last 5 years. Others have recorded sharp declines in chronic poverty as also multi-dimensional poverty between 2005-06 and 2015-16. Indicators like nutrition, child mortality, years of schooling, cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, and assets determine multi-dimensional poverty. If that is the case, the performance between 2015-16 and now would be even more spectacular, considering the pro-poor public welfare thrust. What are the context of th
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To achieve the land degradation neutrality (LDN) goal by 2030, India needs a total overhaul of its policies and programmes governing land. Discuss and suggest what needs to be done to achieve the goal at the earliest

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Land , water and agriculture are all State subjects; forest is a Concurrent subject. However, land degradation assumes national importance because of its overwhelming impact on the economy and the well-being of all the citizens. India faces a severe problem of land degradation, or soil becoming unfit for cultivation. About 29% or about 96.4 million hectares are considered degraded. Land Degradation Neutrality as a concept:  Land degradation neutrality (LDN) is a condition where further land degradation (loss of productivity caused by environmental or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land can be restored.  LDN has been defined by the Parties to the Convention as:  “A state whereby the amount and quality of land resources, necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems.” What are the Benefits of LDN?  As land is fixed in quantity, ther
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Briefly discuss various factors that control the formation of soil.

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Soil is a relatively thin layer of unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the immediate surface of the earth. Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth's body of soil, called the Pedosphere. Fertile soil contains approximately 25% of both air and water, about 5% organic matter and about 45% mineral matter. Soil formation process (paedogenesis) In general, soil formation starts with rocks that are pushed to the surface of the earth by geological or climactic forces. These rocks then undergo weathering - the chemical alteration and physical breakdown of rock during exposure to the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Through the weathering process, eventually enough essential elements become available to support lichens and other lower forms of plant life. As continuing generations of lichens grow, die, and decay, they leave increasing amounts of organic matter. Naturally-occurring organic acids
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As an issue, land degradation of land is much more complex than it appears. Explain in context of its relationship with climate change.

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Recently, India has hosted the meeting of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. A major global agreement on issues related to land, the convention (UNCCD) seeks to address the phenomenon of desertification, the process through which fertile and productive land become degraded and unfit for useful activities like agriculture. The UNCCD meeting takes place every two years and the ongoing one in Greater Noida is the 14th such meeting. More about desertification-  A variety of factors, both natural and human-induced, are known to be affecting the productivity of land, and making them desert-like.  Increasing populations and the resultant rise in demand for food and water, feed for cattle, and a wide variety of ecosystem services these offer, have prompted human beings to clear forests, use chemicals, cultivate multiple crops, and over-exploit groundwater.  This has affected both the health and productivity of land.  Natural processes such as rising global temperature
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Power dissemination in the society is usually enabled through social stratification and accumulation of power reinforces further social differentiation

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Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of society affects a person’s social standing. Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported by society as a whole. What factors define stratification?  In most societies, stratification is an economic system, based on wealth, the net value of money and assets a person has, and income, a person’s wages or investment dividends. While people are regularly categorized based on how rich or poor they are.  Other important factors influence socia
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